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Scientific Journal

Scientific Journal

In academic publishing, a scientific journal is a periodical publication intended to further the progress of science, usually by reporting new research.

Content

Articles in scientific journals are mostly written by active scientists such as students, researchers, and professors instead of professional journalists. There are thousands of scientific journals in publication, and many more have been published at various points in the past (see list of scientific journals). Most journals are highly specialized, although some of the oldest journals such as Nature publish articles and scientific papers across a wide range of scientific fields. Scientific journals contain articles that have been peer-reviewed, in an attempt to ensure that articles meet the journal's standards of quality and scientific validity. Although scientific journals are superficially similar to professional magazines, they are actually quite different. Issues of a scientific journal are rarely read casually, as one would read a magazine. The publication of the results of research is an essential part of the scientific method. If they are describing experiments or calculations, they must supply enough details that an independent researcher could repeat the experiment or calculation to verify the results. Each such journal article becomes part of the permanent scientific record.

History

The history of scientific journals date from 1665, when the French Journal des sçavans and the English Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society first began systematically publishing research results. Over a thousand, mostly ephemeral, were founded in the 18th century, and the number has increased rapidly after that.

Prior to the mid-20th century, peer review was not always necessary, but gradually it became essentially compulsory.

Scope

Articles in scientific journals can be used in research and higher education. Scientific articles allow researchers to keep up to date with the developments of their field and direct their own research. An essential part of a scientific article is a citation of earlier work. The impact of articles and journals is often assessed by counting citations (citation impact). Some classes are partially devoted to the explication of classic articles, and seminar classes can consist of the presentation by each student of a classic or current paper. Schoolbooks and textbooks have been written usually only on established topics, while the latest research and more obscure topics are only accessible through scientific articles. In a scientific research group or academic department, it is usual for the content of current scientific journals to be discussed in journal clubs. Public funding bodies often require the results to be published in scientific journals. Academic credentials for promotion into academic ranks are established in large part by the number and impact of scientific articles published. Many doctoral programs allow for thesis by publication, where the candidate is required to publish a certain number of scientific articles.

Wording

Articles tend to be highly technical, representing the latest theoretical research and experimental results in the field of science covered by the journal. They are often incomprehensible to anyone except for researchers in the field and advanced students. In some subjects, this is inevitable given the nature of the content. Usually, rigorous rules of scientific writing are enforced by the editors; however, these rules may vary from journal to journal, especially between journals from different publishers. Articles are usually either original articles reporting completely new results or reviews of current literature. There are also scientific publications that bridge the gap between articles and books by publishing thematic volumes of chapters from different authors. Many journals have a regional focus, specializing in publishing papers from a particular geographic region, like African Invertebrates.

Publishing process

The authors of scientific articles are active researchers instead of journalists; typically, a graduate student or a researcher writes a paper with a professor. As such, the authors are unpaid and receive no compensation from the journal. However, their funding bodies may require them to publish in scientific journals. The paper is submitted to the journal office, where the editor considers the paper for appropriateness, potential scientific impact, and novelty. If the journal's editor considers the paper appropriate, the paper is submitted to scholarly peer review. Depending on the field, journal, and paper, the paper is sent to 1–3 reviewers for evaluation before they can be granted permission to publish. Reviewers are expected to check the paper for the soundness of its scientific argument, i.e. if the data collected or considered in the paper support the conclusion offered. Novelty is also key: existing work must be appropriately considered and referenced, and new results improving on the state of the art presented. Reviewers are usually unpaid and not a part of the journal staff—instead, they should be "peers", i.e. researchers in the same field as the paper in question.

Standards and impact

The standards that a journal uses to determine publication can vary widely. Some journals, such as Nature, Science, PNAS, and Physical Review Letters, have a reputation for publishing articles that marks a fundamental breakthrough in their respective fields. In many fields, a formal or informal hierarchy of scientific journals exists; the most prestigious journal in a field tends to be the most selective in terms of the articles it will select for publication, and usually will also have the highest impact factor. In some countries, journal rankings can be utilized for funding decisions  and even evaluation of individual researchers, although they are poorly suited for that purpose.

Reproducibility and Replicability

For scientific journal Reproducibility and Replicability are core concepts that allow another scientist to check and reproduce the results under the same conditions mentioned in the paper or at least similar conditions and produce similar results with similar measurements of the same measurand or carried out under changed conditions of measurement.

Types of articles

There are several types of journal articles; the exact terminology and definitions vary by field and specific journal, but often include:

·         Letters (also called communications, and not to be confused with letters to the editor) are short descriptions of important current research findings that are usually fast-tracked for immediate publication because they are considered urgent.

·         Research notes are short descriptions of current research findings that are considered less urgent or important than Letters.

·         Articles are usually between five and twenty pages and are complete descriptions of current original research findings, but there are considerable variations between scientific fields and journals—80-page articles are not rare in mathematics or theoretical computer science.

·         Supplemental articles contain a large volume of tabular data that is the result of current research and maybe dozens or hundreds of pages with mostly numerical data. Some journals now only publish this data electronically on the Internet. Supplemental information also contains other voluminous material not appropriate for the main body of the article, like descriptions of routine procedures, derivations of equations, source code, non-essential data, spectra or other such miscellaneous information.

·         Review articles do not cover original research but rather accumulate the results of many different articles on a particular topic into a coherent narrative about the state of the art in that field. Review articles provide information about the topic and also provide journal references to the original research. Reviews may be entirely narrative, or may provide quantitative summary estimates resulting from the application of meta-analytical methods.

·         Data papers are articles dedicated to describe datasets. This type of article is becoming popular and journals exclusively dedicated to them have been established, e.g. Scientific Data and Earth System Science Data.

·         Video papers are a recent addition to the practice of scientific publications. They most often combine an online video demonstration of a new technique or protocol combined with a rigorous textual description.

Electronic publishing

Electronic publishing is a new area of information dissemination. One definition of electronic publishing is in the context of the scientific journal. It is the presentation of scholarly scientific results in only an electronic (non-paper) form. This is from its first write-up, or creation, to its publication or dissemination. The electronic scientific journal is specifically designed to be presented on the internet. It is defined as not being previously printed material adapted, or retooled, and then delivered electronically.

Cost

Many scientists and librarians have long protested the cost of journals, especially as they see these payments going to large for-profit publishing houses. To allow their researcher's online access to journals, many universities purchase site licenses, permitting access from anywhere in the university, and, with appropriate authorization, by university-affiliated users at home or elsewhere. These may be quite expensive, sometimes much more than the cost for a print subscription, although this may reflect the number of people who will be using the license—while a print subscription is a cost for one person to receive the journal; a site-license can allow thousands of people to gain access.

Copyright

Traditionally, the author of an article was required to transfer the copyright to the journal publisher. Publishers claimed this was necessary in order to protect authors' rights, and to coordinate permissions for reprints or other use. However, many authors, especially those active in the open access movement, found this unsatisfactory, and have used their influence to effect a gradual move towards a license to publish instead. Under such a system, the publisher has permission to edit, print, and distribute the article commercially, but the authors retain the other rights themselves.

List of scientific journals

Agriculture

·         Agronomy for Sustainable Development

·         Animal Production Science

·         Journal of Animal Science

·         Journal of the Science of Food and Agriculture

·         Journal of Soil and Water Conservation

 

Ecology

·         Advances in Ecological Research

·         Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution, and Systematics

·         Ecology

·         Ecology Letters

·         Journal of Ecology

·         Journal of Soil and Water Conservation

·         Trends in Ecology & Evolution

Forestry

·         Bosque

·         Canadian Journal of Forest Research

·         Forest Ecology and Management

Academic conference

An academic conference or symposium is a conference for researchers (not necessarily academics) to present and discuss their work. Together with academic or scientific journals, conferences provide an important channel for the exchange of information between researchers.

Presentations from the core of most conferences

Conferences are usually composed of various presentations. They tend to be short and concise, with a time span of about 10 to 30 minutes; presentations are usually followed by a discussion. The work may be bundled in written form as academic papers and published as the conference proceedings.

Usually a conference will include keynote speakers (often, scholars of some standing, but sometimes individuals from outside academia). The keynote lecture is often longer, lasting sometimes up to an hour and a half, particularly if there are several keynote speakers on a panel.

Panel discussions are intended to bring multiple perspectives on a topic

In addition to presentations, conferences also feature panel discussions, round tables on various issues, poster sessions and workshops. Some conferences take more interactive formats, such as the participant-driven "unconference" or various conversational formats.

Presentations

Presentations may be Plenary sessions designed for all attendees (shown here) or breakout sections designed for smaller groups.

Prospective presenters are usually asked to submit a short abstract of their presentation, which will be reviewed before the presentation is accepted for the meeting. Some disciplines require presenters to submit the paper of about 6–15 pages, which is peer-reviewed by members of the program committee or referees are chosen by them.

In some disciplines, such as English and other languages, it is common for presenters to read from a prepared script. In other disciplines such as the sciences, presenters usually base their talk around a visual presentation that displays key figures and research results.

Size

A large meeting will usually be called a conference, while a smaller is termed a workshop. They might be single track or multiple track, where the former has only one session at a time, while a multiple track meeting has several parallel sessions with speakers in separate rooms speaking at the same time.

The larger the conference, the more likely it is that academic publishing houses may set up displays. Large conferences also may have a career and job search and interview activities.

At some conferences, social or entertainment activities such as tours and receptions can be part of the program. Business meetings for learned societies or interest groups can also be part of the conference activities.

Types

Academic conferences typically fall into three categories:

·         the themed conference, small conferences organized around a particular topic;

·         the general conference, a conference with a wider focus, with sessions on a wide variety of topics. These conferences are often organized by regional, national, or international learned societies, and held annually or on some other regular basis.

·         the professional conference, large conferences not limited to academics but with academically related issues.

Infrastructure

Larger conferences may have exhibits and displays for participants between sessions

Increasing numbers of amplified conferences are being provided which exploit the potential of WiFi networks and mobile devices in order to enable remote participants to contribute to discussions and listen to ideas.

Advanced technology for meeting with any yet unknown person in a conference is performed by active RFID that may indicate wilfully identified and relatively located upon approach via electronic tags.

Organizing an academic conference

Conferences are usually organized either by a scientific society or by a group of researchers with a common interest. Larger meetings maybe handled on behalf of the scientific society by a Professional Conference Organiser or PCO.

The meeting is announced by way of a Call For Papers (CFP) or a Call For Abstracts, which is sent to prospective presenters and explains how to submit their abstracts or papers. It describes the broad theme and lists the meeting's topics and formalities such as what kind of abstract (summary) or paper has to be submitted, to whom, and by what deadline. A CFP is usually distributed using a mailing list or on specialized online services. Contributions are usually submitted using an online abstract or paper management service.

Increasingly, there has been a call for more sustainable academic conferencing, as flying to and consumption at conferences is one of the largest components of an academics environmental footprint, However, few conferences have enacted practices to reduce their environmental impact, despite guidelines being widely available. An analysis of academic conferences taking place in 2016, showed that only 4% of 116 conferences sampled offered carbon offset options and only 9% of these conferences implemented any form of action to them reduced environmental impact

ABSTRACT GUIDELINES

Abstracts must include sufficient information for reviewers to judge the nature and significance of the topic, the adequacy of the investigative strategy, the nature of the results, and the conclusions. The abstract should summarize the substantive results of the work and not merely list topics to be discussed. An abstract is an outline/brief summary of your paper and your whole project. It should have an intro, body, and conclusion. It is a well-developed paragraph, should be exact in wording, and must be understandable to a wide audience.

Abstracts should be no more than 250 words, formatted in Microsoft Word, and single-spaced, using size 12 Times New Roman font. Abstracts highlight major points of your research and explain why your work is important; what your purpose was, how you went about your project, what you learned, and what you concluded. If your title includes scientific notation, Greek letters, bold, italics, or other special characters/symbols, do make sure they appear correctly. List all additional undergraduate co-authors, whether they are or are not presenting, if applicable. List additional faculty mentors, if applicable.

Learning how to write an abstract for a conference is a critical skill for early-career researchers. The purpose of an abstract is to summarize – in a single paragraph – the major aspects of the paper you want to present, so it’s important you learn to write a complete but concise abstract that does your conference paper justice.

Your conference abstract is often the only piece of your work that the conference organizer will see, so it needs to be strong enough to stand alone. And once your work is accepted or published, researchers will only consider attending your presentation or reading the rest of your paper if you’re abstract compels them to.

An abstract for a conference

The formula for how to write an abstract

When considering how to write an abstract, follow this formula:  topic + title + motivation + problem statement + approach + results + conclusions = conference abstract

1. Abstract topic

How will your abstract convince the conference organizers that you’ll add to the discussion on a particular topic at their event? Your conference presentation will have limited scope, so choose an angle that fits the conference topics and consider your abstract through that lens.

2. Abstract title

What is your conference paper about and what makes it interesting? A good rule of thumb is to give your abstract a title of 12 words or less.

3. Motivation

Why should your readers care about the problem and your results? This section should include the background to your research, the importance of it, and the difficulty of the area.

4. The problem

What problem are you trying to solve? Are you using a generalized approach, or is it for a specific situation? (If the problem your research addresses are widely recognized, including this section before motivation.) Clearly, state the topic of your paper and your research question in this section.

5. Study design

How did you approach solving the problem or making progress on it? How did you design your study? What was the extent of your research?

6. Predictions and results

What findings or trends did your analysis uncover? Were they as you expected, or not?

7. Conclusions

What do your results mean? How will they contribute to your field? Will they shake things up, speed things up, or simply show other researchers that this specific area may be a dead end. Are your results general (or generalizable) or highly specific?

Techniques of presenting a paper at an academic conference

Presenting at an academic conference is an important part of a researcher's life, and is an opportunity that most young researchers look forward to. However, while it is no doubt an exciting experience, it presents a scary prospect for most researchers. It is natural for even senior and experienced researchers to feel a tad nervous while addressing a large audience, but for young researchers who are presenting for the first time, the whole process can be overwhelming.

The key to an effective conference presentation lies in being well-prepared. Here are a few tips that will make the process smoother for you:

1. Write your paper with the audience in mind:

 A conference paper should be different from a journal article. Remember that your paper is meant to be heard, not read.  Audiences typically have lower attention spans than readers; therefore, keep the content simple and straightforward. Structure the paper well, with a clear introduction, body, and conclusion. Use language that is simple and clear. Explain any technical terms that you have used and provided a quick recap of the main points wherever needed.

2. Adhere to time limits: 

Generally, paper presentation sessions at conferences are 20-30 minutes long, so prepare your material accordingly. Also, be prepared for any last-minute changes in session timings. If you have been allotted 20 minutes, be ready with a short skeleton outline, just in case the speaker before you have overshot his/her time limit and you only get 10 minutes to present. Conversely, keep some extra material handy because you may get 30 minutes instead of 20.

3. Rehearse in front of a friend: 

Reading in your mind will not help you keep time simply because reading aloud in front of an audience takes longer. Rehearsing a few times in front of a friend or in front of the mirror, so that you are familiar with the content, will boost your confidence. Recording a video of your practice sessions is also a good idea as you can view them later and understand where you need to improve. However, don’t rehearse too much just before the actual session, or your voice might sound dull and tired.

4. Start confidently:  

How you begin your presentation matters a great deal. You will have to gain the audience’s confidence and attention within the first 10-20 seconds of your session. Begin with a quick introduction about yourself as this will help establish your credibility. Make sure you prepare for this in advance. Carefully select a few highlights and be ready with a brief self-introduction. Here’s an example:  “Good morning everybody! My name is Tom Smith. I am a post-graduate in medicine from the University of Michigan, New York and I have spent the past five years working at the Department of Internal Medicine, JJ Hospital. Today, I am going to present a paper titled …..”

5. Maintain eye contact with the audience: 

As you begin your presentation, smile. Be calm, and breathe deep. This will help you relax and dissolve any awkwardness between you and the audience.  Be mindful of your posture: stand straight and hold your head up. This will help you make eye contact with the audience and will also make your voice more audible. Do not read to the desk. Talk clearly, loudly, and energetically. But don’t be too fast: remember that there could be people in the audience whose native language is not English. Take advantage of pauses to look up at your audience, give your audience time to react to what you say, or to let what you said sink in, or to just let yourself breathe and be more composed.

6. Use transitions: 

Remember to use transitions when moving from one idea to another: transitions ensure a smooth flowing presentation. Some useful transitions are “furthermore,” “in addition,” “consequently,” “meanwhile,” “finally,” etc. When using the same idea twice, you can begin with “A similar idea is” or “Another example is,” etc. When giving a point-by-point explanation, it is best to mention the total number of points at the outset; for example: “There are reasons for this. The first reason is….; the second reason is; etc.” This approach will help readers keep track of the points you are discussing. Additionally, sometimes a simple pause or a direct statement such as “Let’s move to the next part of the presentation” or “To move on to another idea” is also an effective way to introduce a new section, idea, or perspective.

7. Encourage questions and discussions: 

If you don’t understand a question, you could ask for it to be rephrased. Don’t worry if you don’t know the answer to one or two questions: you can thank the person for raising it, saying that you have not explored this angle, but will definitely think about it. If there are no questions, you can give a cue by pointing out a weakness of the paper. However, don’t be too bothered if there aren’t any questions even after you’ve asked a few times.

8. Ensure that the closing is natural: 

Ask if there are any questions, offer your contact information, and tell the audience that you would be open to receiving questions from them over email. If there are questions, answer them. If there aren’t any questions, just say thank your audience for attending the session and walk off the stage. However, do not leave the room immediately. People might come to you with questions that strike them after you have concluded the presentation, or might want to talk to you one-on-one.

SPOKEN ENGLISH BROKEN ENGLISH-SUMMARY

SPOKEN ENGLISH BROKEN ENGLISH-SUMMARY

Introduction

            George Bernard Shaw is a well-known writer. He prepared and spoke on the topic ‘Spoken English and Broken English’ on a gramophone recording for the Lingua-phone institute. In his speech, provocative ideas are couched in a simple but sparkling rhetorical style.

Advantages of learning to speak well

            Bernard Shaw says that when we travel in the British Commonwealth or in America or when we meet a native of these countries, we have to speak English well for enough understanding. If we speak in a provincial or cockney dialect, it may prevent us from obtaining some employment which is open to those only speak what is ‘correct English’.

No such thing ideally correct English

            No two British subjects speak exactly alike. Even educated persons, the Poet Laureate and trained speakers do not pronounce of some of the simplest commonest words in the English language exactly alike. Members of the committee who are selected as models of correct speech speak differently. They differ according to the country in which they were born.

Confession of Bernard Shaw 

            Bernard Shaw confesses that he himself does not speak English in the same way. When he speaks to the audience, he speaks carefully. If he were to speak carefully to his wife at home, she would think he was going mad. As a public speaker, he has to take care that every word he says is heard distinctly at the far end of large halls containing thousands of people. At home, he speaks to his wife like mumbling. His wife also a little careless and so he sometimes has to say “What?”

Advice to foreign students of English

             Do not try to speak English perfectly because native speakers of English won’t understand. In London, nine hundred and ninety-nine out of a thousand people not only speak bad English but speak even that very badly. No foreigner can ever stress the syllables and make the voice rise and fall in questions and answer, assertion and denial, in refusal and consent, an enquiry or information, exactly as a native does. Therefore, the first thing they have to do is to speak with a strong foreign accent and speak broken English.

Conclusion

            Bernard Shaw criticizes that it is an insult to the native speaker of English who cannot understand his own language when it is too well-spoken.